Abstract

Insecticide resistance, the genetic adaptation of insects to withstand chemical treatments, presents a critical challenge to agriculture, public health and pest control. This phenomenon, distinct from insecticide tolerance, evolves over generations due to selective pressure from insecticides, leading to significant implications for pest management strategies. The genetics of resistance, extensively studied in houseflies, mosquitoes and fruit flies, reveal that resistance genes, often at low initial frequencies, become prevalent under selective pressure. Resistance mechanisms include pre-adaptive genetic variations and post-adaptive behavioral and physiological adaptations. These mechanisms allow insects to detoxify, avoid, or tolerate insecticides, complicating control efforts. Effective resistance management strategies such as management by moderation, saturation and multiple attacks are essential. Moderation involves reduced and strategic insecticide use, preserving natural enemies and promoting refugia. Saturation employs high-dose treatments or synergists to target resistant pests selectively. The multiple attack strategy uses rotations and mixtures of different insecticides to prevent resistance buildup. Understanding and implementing these strategies require ongoing research, farmer education and collaboration among stakeholders to ensure sustainable pest management to admit the growing challenge of insecticide resistance.